To the History of Europe





European history and society by country: European society by country - History of Europe - History of Europe by country - Rise of the territorial states

73 BC–10th century AD list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe and neighbouring regions, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war

Slavery in ancient Rome and uprisings: Slavery in ancient Rome - Die Sklaverei im Römischen Reich bestand zunächst vor allem aus Schuldsklaverei, während die Versklavung von Kriegsgefangenen während der Eroberungsfeldzüge immer mehr zunahm und Kriegsgefangene als Sklaven - juristisch das Eigentum des pater familias - nach Rom kamen, so daß in der Kaiserzeit der Anteil der Unfreien auf rund ein Viertel der Bevölkerung auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Italiens geschätzt wird - Sklavenaufstände im Römischen Reich zwischen 120 und 71 v. Chr. - vor allem von ländlichen Sklaven ausgelöst - aufgrund der Erbitterung über menschenunwürdige, grausame Behandlung und verstärkt dadurch, daß viele der Sklaven vorher freie Bürger in den hellenistischen Staaten gewesen waren
Since 71 BC Roman empire's mass murder of slaves and further imperial conquests: Um 71 v. Chr. 'Zweite Schlacht am Silarus' zwischen aufständischen Sklaven, deren Heer von wütenden Sklaven nach Zeitzeugenberichten derzeit schon 200.000 bewaffnete Sklaven umfasste, und römischen Legionären - besser trainiert und vor allem gut bewaffnet auf der Grundlage von durch Sklaven produziertem Reichtum -, in der der Anführer der Widerstandsbewegung Spartacus bald nach Beginn der Schlacht getötet werden konnte ohne daß seine Leiche je gefunden wurde (zur Nachahmung bis 1919 und zur Gegenwart), damit nach dem Tod ihres Generals viele Widerstandskämpfer den Mut verloren wegen der Unklarheit des Geschehens und sie sich den Römern ergaben, um dann von den 'patres familias' und ihrem Befehlshaber Crassus, bekannt insbesondere auch für seinen zusammengeraubten gewaltigen Reichtum, als gefangenene Sklaven zu tausenden entlang der Via Appia ans Kreuz geschlagen zu werden, im geschichtlichen Ablauf später gefolgt von Crassus' Feldzug nach Syrien, der dann von Augustus, seit 30 v. Chr. Alleinherrscher (Römische Kaiserzeit 27 v. Chr. bis 284 n. Chr.), fortgesetzt wurde u.a. bis hin zur Liquidierung Judäas und Israels
Since 71 BC Spartacus death, legacy and recognition: Seit 1. Jahrhundert vor Christus Spartakus, gefallen 71 v. Chr., seine Bedeutung in der römischen Geschichte, in der europäischen Aufklärung, und seit dem 18./19. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart - 31 January 2004: The black Spartacus Toussaint L'Ouverture defeated Britain, France and Spain to create a country free from slavery, as now Haiti marks the bicentenary of its birth and Ian Thomson hails its founder

Since 73–63 BC Roman expansion and Roman empire's province of Judea: 63 BC during Roman general Pompey's campaigns in the East Siege of Jerusalem - Since 63 BC during Roman expansion general Pompey made Jerusalem a tributary of Rome, as Judea became a satellite of Syria, a client state of the Roman Republic from 37 BCE, and the Roman empire's province of Judea since 6 AD, incorporating the regions of Judea, Samaria and Idumea, as the name 'Judea' was derived from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE, as after the Bar Kokhba revolt 132–135 the Roman emperor Hadrian changed the name of the province to Syria Palaestina and the name of the city of Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina, an attempt to disconnect the Jewish people from their homeland, later - Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)
Since 66-135 Jewish–Romani ideologically connected wars by the Roman empire to subjugate and then to wipe out the Jewish people: Since 66-135 Jewish–Roman wars against the Jewish people by the Roman empire, committing war crimes to destroy the Jewish religion and to establisch slavery - Since 130 AD 'Aelia Capitolina', a Roman colony founded by Emperor Hadrian in Jerusalem, which had been almost totally razed after the siege of 70 AD, during his trip to Judah in 129/130 AD with the construction of a temple to Jupiter at the site of the former temple, as 'Aelia' came from Hadrian's nomen gentile Aelius, while Capitolina meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, as Aelia Capitolina remained official name until early Middle Ages and transliteration to 'Iliya' after the Muslim conquest of Palestine in 638, when the 7th-century Umayyad Caliphatete used the Islamic name for Jerusalem, and as the population of the city declined after Muslim conquest

718–1492 'Reconquista' in the Iberian Peninsula and military history of Christianity: Spread of Islam - 718–1492 'Reconquista' in the Iberian Peninsula - Military history of Christianity - Military theory
Since the Middle Ages wars of religion, under the pretext of religion and emerging gunpowder empires: Spread of Islam - Islam and antisemitism - Since the Middle Ages European wars of religion and under the pretext of religion - Christianity in the early modern period - Early modern Christian antisemitism
Invasions by the Ottoman Empire in Europe: Invasions by the Ottoman Empire in Europe - 1300–1453 foundation period of the military of the Ottoman Empire - Early modern gunpowder empires

Naval history by geographical location and by country, including emerging European countries: Naval history by geographical location, by country and by economic and technological development - History of naval warfare, the human combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river, in the Mediterranean Sea, Europe, West Asia and North Africa, East, South and Southeast Asia, and in the Americas after the late Middle Ages saw the development of the cogs, caravels and carracks ships capable of surviving the tough conditions of the open ocean, with enough backup systems and crew expertise to make long voyages routine, and in addition, they grew from 100 tons to 300 tons displacement, enough to carry cannon as armament and still have space for cargo, told by the peaceful Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer Archimedes of Syracuse 287-212 BC

Since 1492 Spanish colonization of the Americas under the Crown of Castile searching gold and silver: Since 1492 Spanish colonization of the Americas under the Crown of Castile and spearheaded by the Spanish conquistadors searching gold and silver, needed for the circulation sphere of the emerging European capitalism, as the Americas populated by Native Americans were invaded, fought down merciless and incorporated into the Spanish Empire - Wars involving the arising Spanish empire and Spain

16th/17th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war
1568–1648 'Dutch War of Independence' against Spanish empire: 1568–1648 Eighty Years' War or 'Dutch War of Independence', a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces of what are today the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg against Spanish empire's Philip II, also the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands, who - after the initial stages - deployed his armies, trained for a long time, and regained control over most of the rebelling provinces
1585–1604 Anglo-Spanish War: 1585–1604 Anglo-Spanish War, an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England, punctuated by widely separated battles, beginning with England's military expedition in 1585 to what was then the Spanish Netherlands in support of the resistance of the States General to Spanish Habsburg rule, as the English enjoyed a victory at Cádiz in 1587, and repelled the Spanish Armada in 1588, but then suffered heavy setbacks despite two further Spanish armadas of 1596 and 1597 failure's for Spain mainly because of adverse weather and poor planning, then becoming deadlocked around the turn of the 17th century during campaigns in the Netherlands, France, and Ireland and brought to an end with the Treaty of London, negotiated in 1604 between representatives of the new King of Spain, Philip III, and the new King of England, James I. England and Spain agreed to cease their military interventions in the Spanish Netherlands and Ireland, respectively, and the English ended high seas privateering
August 1604 Treaty of London restoring the 'Status quo' between Anglo-Spanish monarchies with very different and opposite backgrounds: August 1604 Treaty of London, concluding the nineteen-year Anglo-Spanish War by restoring the 'Status quo' between the two monarchies with very different and opposite backgrounds
1602-1663 Dutch–Portuguese War: 1602-1663 Dutch–Portuguese War involving Dutch forces, in the form of the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, against the Portuguese Empire, as in its beginning the conflict primarily involved the Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies in the Americas, Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, and as the war can be thought of as an extension of the 'Eighty Years' War' in Europe, as Portugal was in a dynastic union with the Spanish Crown after the War of the Portuguese Succession for most of the conflict, but in the real world of economics and the 'Wealth of Nations' the conflict had little to do with the war in Europe and served mainly as a way for the Dutch to gain an overseas empire and control trade at the cost of the Portuguese, as English forces also assisted the Dutch at certain points in the war, though in later decades English and Dutch would become fierce rivals, and even later would connect again and even join in British/Dutch 'joint ventures', like British-Dutch multinational oil and gas company, in the times of economic and global crises, environmental disasters and climate change, beginning with the panic and stock market crash of 1825 in London, arising in part out of speculative investments in Latin America
1609-21 'Twelve Years' Truce' between Habsburg rulers of Spain and the Netherlands: Since April 1609 'Twelve Years' Truce', the cessation of hostilities between the Habsburg rulers of Spain and the Southern Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, agreed in Antwerp, coinciding with the Royal Decree of Expulsion of the Moriscos, and a watershed in the 'Eighty Years' War', marking the point from which the independence of the United Provinces received formal recognition by outside powers, as for Spanish empire the truce and progress was seen as a defeat as the global 'conquistadors' were forced to make several 'sacrifices' but they scarcely got anything in return, like gold and silver for murdered Native Americans since 1492

Since 1618 European involvement in 'Thirty Years' War' and social impact: Since 1618 involvement in 'Thirty Years' War', social impact and political consequences
May 1618 – May 1648 'Thirty Years' War': May 1618 – May 1648 'Thirty Years' War', a conflict primarily fought in Central Europe, as estimates of total military and civilian deaths range from 4.5 to 8 million, mostly from disease or starvation, and in some areas of Germany, it has been suggested that up to 60% of the population died
1625-1630 Anglo–Spanish War fought by Spain against the Kingdom of England and the United Provinces: 1625-1630 Anglo–Spanish War, fought by Spain against the Kingdom of England and the United Provinces, as the conflict already formed part of the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War

18th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war
1792-1802 French Revolutionary Wars following the French Revolution and Republic: 1792-1802 French Revolutionary Wars, following the French Revolution since 1789 and the establishment of the first French Republic as turning point in human history, and divided in the two periods of the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802), as Great Britain, the Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, Russia, and several other monarchies looked with outrage at the revolution and its upheavals, considering whether they should intervene, either in support of King Louis XVI, to prevent the spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France

19th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states, civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a 'theatre' of war
Since 1799 Napoleonic wars, war crimes and restoration of slavery: 1803–1815 Napoleonic Wars, total war, millions of Napoleonic wars casualties, leading to an ongoing period of reaction, including the restoration of slavery, nationalism and chauvinism worldwide
1775–1783 American Revolutionary War, the war of independence between the Kingdom of Great Britain and 13 of its former North American colonies, which had declared themselves the independent United States of America - 1808-1833 Spanish American wars of independence - 1822-1824 war of independence of Brazil and first, second Brazilian republic and 1988 Constitution
1854 'Das revolutionäre Spanien': 1854 'Das revolutionäre Spanien', 11 Artikel von Karl Marx, die die Periode der ersten bürgerlichen Revolution (1808 - 1814), die der zweiten (1820-1823) und die der dritten bürgerlichen Revolution in Spanien (1834-1843) umfaßten, wobei von diesen Artikeln in der 'New-York Daily Tribune' nur die ersten acht (bis 1820) veröffentlicht wurden
1873-1874 First Spanish Republic: First Spanish Republic 1873-1874
1873/74 Aufstand in Spanien: 1894 Vorbemerkung zur Denkschrift über den Aufstand in Spanien im Sommer 1873 'Die Bakunisten an der Arbeit', von Friedrich Engels
Republicanism in Spain: Republicanism in Spain

Da agosto 1875 monumento della vergogna: Crimini di guerra della Wehrmacht furono quelli commessi dalle forze armate tedesche durante la seconda guerra mondiale, che tra il settembre 1939 e il maggio 1945 si macchiarono di innumerevoli crimini di guerra, crimini contro le popolazioni civili e violazioni delle norme internazionali che regolavano i conflitti armati, specialmente sul fronte orientale
'Armadio della vergogna', un'espressione del giornalismo relativo a crimini di guerra commessi sul territorio italiano durante la campagna d'Italia (1943-1945) dalle truppe nazifasciste - Depuis 16 août 1875 monument d'Hermann ('Hermannsdenkmal' - 'sapere aude'), un monument situé en Rhénanie-du-Nord-Westphalie en Allemagne dans le sud de la forêt de Teutberg, qui se trouve au sud-ouest de Detmold dans le district de Lippe. Il se dresse sur le mont densément boisé de Teutberg qui s'élève à 386 mètres, au centre de la fortification circulaire de Grotenburg, mais c'est vers l'ouest et non vers le sud que la statue - inaugurée en présence de l'empereur Guillaume - est tournée - 9 CE 'Battle of the Teutoburg Forest' in the northern countryside of Osnabrück, when an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, as the alliance was led by Germanic officer of Varus's auxilia 'Arminius', who had acquired Roman citizenship and had received a Roman military education, which enabled him to deceive the Roman commander methodically and anticipate the Roman army's tactical responses. The very cruel battle reportedly (by contemporary historians) for many days is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania - List of ancient Germanic peoples

20th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe: 20th century list of conflicts and wars in Europe
Prior to WWI August Bebel's 'secret diplomacy' for years to keep the peace: Prior to WWI SPD's August Bebel saw with great concern that the German-British relationship was deteriorating, warning against an expansion of the German navy, as - in particular - his criticism of the naval armor led him to 'flee into secret diplomacy' and for years he had been in contact with British government circles through Heinrich Angst, the British consul general in Switzerland, warning the British government several times that their armaments efforts would be eased, and until shortly before his death, he delivered political assessments and reports to the British, but the United Kingdom missed to take the friend of deceased Karl Marx seriously
1914-1918 World War I by German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman empires: 28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918 World War I by Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria and others, a global war originating in Europe that led to the mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, making it one of the largest wars and one of the deadliest conflicts in history - 24 Februar 2011: 'At what cost?: Spanish neutrality in the First World War', 2009, by Carolyn S. Lowry, University of South Florida, saying 'while one expects adversity in war, the First World War left no nation untouched, and even the neutral powers did not escape unscathed, particularly Spain. The case of Spain in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries shows the ultimate demise of one of Europe’s greatest empires. While Spain had dominated the continent in earlier centuries, its great empire fell far behind as the world expanded through industrialization and further imperial conquest', and as now Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare campaign ravaged Spanish shipping, exacerbating economic hardships - Aftermath of World War I
1931-1939 Second Spanish Republic: 1931-1939 Second Spanish Republic
1936-1939 military campaign by Spanish fascists supported by Italian fascists and Nazi Germany against Second Spanish Republic: July 1936 – April 1939 'Spanish Civil War', an attack and military campaign by Spanish fascists supported by Italian fascists and Nazi Germany against the Second Spanish Republic, the 'dress rehearsal' for World War II
Since September 1939 bombing of Wielun and Warsaw: 1 September 1939 bombing of Wielun comprised air raids on the Polish town of Wielun by Germany's Luftwaffe, that destroyed at least 70% of the town's buildings (as much as 90%, in the city center), causing hundreds of civilian casualties according to historian Norman Davies, described as the first war crime committed by Germany in World War II - Since 1 September 1939 Germann bombings of Warsaw in World War II referring to the aerial bombing campaign of Warsaw by the German Luftwaffe during the siege of Warsaw in the invasion of Poland in 1939, it also may refer to German bombing raids during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944, as during the course of the war approximately 84% of the city was destroyed due to German mass bombings, heavy artillery fire and a planned demolition campaign
1939-1945 World War II by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan: 1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945 World War II by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan, a global war involving the vast majority of the world's countries - including all the great powers - forming two opposing military alliances, the Allies and the Axis, as in a state of total war, directly involving more than 100 million personnel from more than 30 countries, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources, becoming the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in 70 to 85 million fatalities, with more civilians than military personnel killed, as tens of millions of people died due to the Holocaust and more genocides, premeditated death from starvation, massacres, and disease, as aircraft played a major role in the conflict, including in strategic bombing of population centres, the development of nuclear weapons forced by German efforts, and the only two uses of such in war
22 June 1941-1945 Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union: Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II since 22 June 1941
24 June 1941 German air force in the skies of pre-state Israel: 8 April 2021: On 24 June 1941 during the longest and most complex sortie executed by the NSDAP-ruled German empire's air force in the skies of pre-state Israel, a Junkers plane photographed Tel Aviv, the Jordan Valley, Tiberias and an airport near Amman
September 1941-1944 Siege of Leningrad' and the 1943 'Battle of Krasny Bor': Blue Division, a unit from Francoist Spain within the German Nazi 'Wehrmacht' on the Eastern Front during World War II, participating in common war crimes of the '1941-1944 Siege of Leningrad' and the 1943 'Battle of Krasny Bor'
Since July/August 1943 liberation of the Soviet Union and eastern front countries: Depuis juillet/août 1943 les forces de l'Axe perdent l'initiative des offensives stratégiques, les Soviétiques reprennent l'initiative, reprennent et libèrent leur pays et les régions conquises par la 'Wehrmacht' sur le front de l'Est de la Seconde Guerre mondiale
6 June – August 1944 Allied casualties during liberation of Normandy, including civilians: Juin/août 1944 Pertes des Alliés - forces terrestres 209 672 tués, blessés et disparus, forces aériennes 16 714 tués et disparus - civils 50 000 tués, blessés et disparus (dont tués 33 000) - Casualties and losses of 6 June – 30 August 1944, as victims during Allied forces 'Operation Overlord' include 226,386 Allied casualties and 25,000–39,000 civilian deaths
1944/1945 liberation of France and western front countries: Since June 1944 liberation of France and western front countries

Aftermath of World War II, consequences of Nazism and continuation: Aftermath of World War II, consequences of Nazism and continuation - List of military writers including German Nazigeneral Heinz Guderian, who developed principles of Blitzkrieg 'Achtung – Panzer', and German Nazigeneral Erwin Rommel 'Infantry Attacks'
Combined efforts of the wartime Allies and resistance movements for new answers following and facing European history: Nazism and the acts of the Nazi German state affected many countries, communities, and people before, during and after World War II, as NSDAP-ruled Germany's attempts to exterminate the Jewish people, parts of slavic peoples, ethnic groups, people viewed as subhuman by NSDAP and SS ideology were eventually stopped by the combined efforts of the wartime Allies headed by Britain, the Soviet Union, the USA, and by World War II resistance movements, as also Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe and during the Holocaust led to new answers following and facing European history

Economic history of Europe and business cycles: Economic history of Europe and business cycles
18th/19th centuries Industrial Revolution in Europe and other continents, i.a. cotton production and expansion of slavery: 18th/19th centuries Industrial Revolution's effects on cotton production and expansion of slavery, as cotton became profitable, leading to the widespread growth of cotton plantations in the emerging USA and Brazil, as American countries' labour shortages resulting from destruction of Native American cultures made slavery even more attractive as cotton plantations became highly efficient and profitable
Since 1873 'Long Depression' lasting almost to the end of the century: Since 1873 'Long Depression', a worldwide price and economic recession and the most severe in Europe and the USA, which had been experiencing strong economic growth fueled by the Second Industrial Revolution in the decade following USA's abolishment of slavery by A. Lincoln, southern states rebellion and war, as the episode was labeled the 'Great Depression' at the time
1893 Independent Labour Party ILP and Marx/Aveling's goal of shifting the ILP's positions towards 'system of criticism of political economy': In 1893 the Independent Labour Party ILP was founded. Eleanor Marx attended the conference as an observer, while her husband Aveling was a delegate, but their goal of shifting the ILP's positions towards 'system of criticism of political economy' failed, with the party remaining under a strong Christian socialist influence, as in 1897, Marx and Aveling re-joined the Social Democratic Federation, like most former members of the Socialist League - Wie der amerikanische Unabhängigkeitskrieg des 18. Jahrhunderts die Sturmglocke für die europäische Mittelklasse läutete, so der amerikanische Bürgerkrieg des 19. Jahrhunderts für die europäische Arbeiterklasse. In England ist der Umwälzungsprozeß mit Händen greifbar. Auf einem gewissen Höhepunkt muß er auf den Kontinent rückschlagen. Dort wird er sich in brutaleren oder humaneren Formen bewegen, je nach dem Entwicklungsgrad der Arbeiterklasse selbst. Von höheren Motiven abgesehn, gebietet also den jetzt herrschenden Klassen ihr eigenstes Interesse die Wegräumung aller gesetzlich kontrollierbaren Hindernisse, welche die Entwicklung der Arbeiterklasse hemmen. Ich habe deswegen u.a. der Geschichte, dem Inhalt und den Resultaten der englischen Fabrikgesetzgebung einen so ausführlichen Platz in diesem Bande eingeräumt. Eine Nation soll und kann von der andern lernen. Auch wenn eine Gesellschaft dem Naturgesetz ihrer Bewegung auf die Spur gekommen ist - und es ist der letzte Endzweck dieses Werks, das ökonomische Bewegungsgesetz der modernen Gesellschaft zu enthüllen -, kann sie naturgemäße Entwicklungsphasen weder überspringen noch wegdekretieren. Aber sie kann die Geburtswehen abkürzen und mildern. - Seit 1830 und den gescheiterten europäischen Revolutionen 1848-51 hatte die 'Bourgeoisie ... in Frankreich und England politische Macht erobert. Von da an gewann der Klassenkampf, praktisch und theoretisch, mehr und mehr ausgesprochne und drohende Formen. Er läutete die Totenglocke der wissenschaftlichen bürgerlichen Ökonomie. Es handelte sich jetzt nicht mehr darum, ob dies oder jenes Theorem wahr sei, sondern ob es dem Kapital nützlich oder schädlich, bequem oder unbequem, ob polizeiwidrig oder nicht. An die Stelle uneigennütziger Forschung trat bezahlte Klopffechterei, an die Stelle unbefangner wissenschaftlicher Untersuchung das böse Gewissen und die schlechte Absicht der Apologetik. Indes selbst die zudringlichen Traktätchen, welche die Anti-Corn-Law League, mit den Fabrikanten Cobden und Bright an der Spitze, in die Welt schleuderte, boten, wenn kein wissenschaftliches, doch ein historisches Interesse durch ihre Polemik gegen die grundeigentümliche Aristokratie. Auch diesen letzten Stachel zog die Freihandelsgesetzgebung seit Sir Robert Peel der Vulgärökonomie aus
Since 1929 'Weltwirtschaftskrise' and Great Depression: Since 1929 Great Depression, starting in 1873 and lasting almost to the end of the century, a severe worldwide economic depression that took place mostly during the 1930s, beginning in the USA, as the timing of the crisis varied across the world lasting until the late 1930s, and as it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century, commonly described as an example of how intensely the capitalist mode of production and global economy can decline - Seit 1929 Weltwirtschaftskrise zum Ende der 1920er und im Verlauf der 1930er Jahre beginnend mit dem New Yorker Börsencrash im Oktober 1929
Since 2007/8 Great Recession in Europe: Since 2007/8 Great Recession in Europe - Great Recession worldwide following the financial crisis since 2007 - European debt crisis affecting the countries of the eurozone since early 2009, when a group of 10 central and eastern European banks asked for a bailout - Causes of the European debt crisis
June/July 2011 ESM: 20. Juni 2011: EU Einigung am 20. Juni 2011 auf 'Europäischen Stabilitätsmechanismus' ESM ab 2013 - 20. Juni 2011: Besorgnis des IWF über Europas Schuldensituation - 26. Juni 2011: Chinas Staatsfonds steht zu Euro-Investitionen - 11. Juli 2011: EU-Justizkommissarin will Macht der Rating-Agenturen brechen
August 2011 'Leerverkäufe' und Spekulation: 12. August 2011: Belgien, Frankreich, Griechenland, Italien und Spanien verfügen Verbote sog. 'Leerverkäufe' im Börsenhandel, teils nur befristet - 25. August 2011: Frankreich, Italien und Spanien verlängern Verbot von sog. 'Leerverkäufen', d.h. insoweit von Spekulation auf den Ruin eben dieser Länder
September 2011 strengere Regeln für ESM: 28. September 2011: Strengere Regeln für Euro-Stabilitätspakt verabschiedet - 29. September 2011: Spanien und Italien verlängern Verbot von 'Leerverkäufen'
October 2011: 27 October 2011: EU leaders agree to a last-minute deal on eurozone debts and reducing Greek debts - 31 octobre 2011: Le taux de chômage dans la zone euro a atteint 10,2% de la population active en septembre 2011
November 2011 Greek and eurozone crisis: 4 November 2011: Greek eurozone crisis and G20 meeting - current events - Lessons to learn: - Chapter: The form of value - Chapter: Productive and unproductive labour
December 2011: 8 December: European countries face eurozone crisis summit in Brussels still without any idea to disempower banks and to democratise credit - 9 December 2011: Brussels summit rejects EU wide treaty change
January/February 2012: 14 January 2012: EU criticises Standard&Poor's ratings downgrade of nine eurozone countries - 31 January 2012: Eurozone unemployment hits new record at the end of 2011 reaching a rate of 10,4 per cent - 21 février 2012: L'Eurogroupe approuve le plan d'aide de 130 milliards d'euros à la Grèce - 23. Februar 2012: Laut Konjunkturprognose der EU-Kommission rutschen die Euro-Länder in Rezession von 0,3%
April/May 2012: 2 avril 2012: Le taux de chômage dans la zone euro est à son plus haut depuis 1999 et a atteint 10,8% de la population active en février 2012 - 2 May 2012: For all 17 nations in the eurozone, the jobless rate rose again to 10.9%, the highest since the euro was formed in 1999 - 16. Mai 2012: EU-Parlament und EU-Finanzminister vor Verhandlungen zu Eigenkapitalregeln für Banken
June 2012: 1 June 2012: Eurozone unemployment at 11%, in the 27-nation EU the jobless rate 10.3%, up from 10.2% - 10 June 2012: Spanish bank bailout request welcomed - 29 June 2012: Eurozone agrees to use its bailout fund to support struggling banks directly
July/August 2012: 2 July 2012: Unemployment in the eurozone hit 11.1% in May while the downturn in its manufacturing sector continued - 25 July 2012: Libor fixing to become criminal offence, EU justice commissioner Viviane Reding says - 2 August 2012: ECB's Draghi reaffirms promise to do 'whatever it takes' to save euro - 14 August 2012: Eurozone economy shrinks by 0.2% - 31 August 2012: Unemployment across the 17-nation eurozone hit a record 18 million in July
September/October 2012: 6 September: ECB's Mario Draghi unveils bond-buying euro debt plan - 1 October: Unemployment in the eurozone hit a fresh high of 18.2 million in August - 8 October: Eurozone unlocks $650bn crisis rescue fund - 13 October: The EU has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which is worth a million euros, for six decades of work in advancing peace in Europe - 18 October: EU Brussels summit to focus on eurozone crisis - 19 October: At the EU Brussels summit compromise deal reached on eurozone bank supervisor - 23 October: The European Commission has backed plans from 10 countries to launch a financial transactions tax - 31 October: Eurozone unemployment jumps to fresh high of 18.49 million in September, unemployment rate up to 11.6% (a year earlier 10.3%)
November/December 2012: 6 November: The European Court of Auditors said there were errors in allocating about 5bn euros from the 2011 EU budget - 7 November: Eurozone jobless to peak near 12% in 2013,the EU autumn forecasts says - 30 November: Unemployment in the eurozone hit a record high in October, with more than 170.000 extra jobs lost and youth joblessness at almost 24 per cent, as the economy slumped into recession - 13 December: Eurozone agrees ECB banking supervision rules
January/February 2013: 8 January 2013: Eurozone unemployment reaches new high in 2012, as more than 26 million people are now unemployed across the EU - 28 February 2013: EU agrees to cap banker bonuses
April/May 2013: 2 April 2013: The euro area seasonally-adjusted unemployment rate was 12.0 % in February 2013 - 15 mai 2013: Selon une première estimation de l'Eurostat, le Produit intérieur brut de la zone euro s'est replié de 0,2% au premier trimestre - 31 May: One in four youths is jobless as unemployment across the eurozone reaches record of 19.38 million people or 12.2%
September-November 2013: 27 septembre: Le budget UE 2013 accuse un trou de 20 milliards d'euros - 12 November: EU agreement on 2014 budget, including 135.5 billion euros in payments and 142.6 billion euros in commitments
2014: 1 January 2014: European labour market opens for Romanians, Bulgarians - 5 June: As the eurozone economy is only growing at 0.2%, ECB slashes interest rate to 0.15%
26 October 2014: Twenty-four European banks fail European Banking Authority financial stress tests
2015: 22 January 2015: ECB president Mario Draghi pledges €60bn monthly top-up until September 2016 in quantitative easing move to save currency bloc - 20 February: Eurozone ministers gather for crucial Greece talks - 19 March: EU leaders set for crunch Greek talks at Brussels summit - 20 March: EU summit in Brussels demands Greece produce economic blueprint quickly - 20 March: EU offers funds to Greece in return for urgent reforms - 24 March: Greece promises list of reforms by next Monday to unlock cash and avoid default - 29 June 2015: Turmoil hits the financial world after capital controls imposed in Greece and banks are shut for a week, triggering a new phase of the eurozone crisis - 23 September: Volkswagen crisis and Chinese economy fears weigh on markets - 13 November 2015: The eurozone economy slowed in the three months to September 2015 as exports to large developing economies weakened
July 2017: 28 July 2017: Economic confidence across the eurozone has inched up to its highest level in a decade, as countries beat UK with solid growth in Q2
August 2018: 14 August 2018: The eurozone economy has shrugged off growing trade tensions to grow faster than previously estimated in the three months to the end of June, as GDP was also up 0.4% in the 28 EU countries
Mai 2019: 12 mai 2019: Les inégalités ont augmenté dans l'Union européenne ces dernières décennies, en particulier dans l'ancien bloc de l'Est, selon une étude
June 2019 eurozone's manufacturers hit by an even sharper slowdown than Britain on back of Brexit uncertainty: 3 June 2019: Manufacturers in the eurozone hit by an even sharper slowdown than Britain on back of Brexit uncertainty, as UK survey found that the seven-month delay to Brexit had been followed by a reduction in domestic and overseas orders and led to some companies diverting supply chains away from the UK, while weak production led to a second month of job losses
Februar 2020 eurozone economy hits seven-year low: 14 Februar 2020: Eurozone growth hits seven-year low amid weakness at Europe’s largest economies, as German economy stagnates and France, Italy and Finland contract, although countries in the periphery grew quite strongly in the last quarter of 2019
Since February 2020 economic impact of the covid-19 pandemic in Europe: Since February 2020 economic impact of the covid-19 pandemic in Europe, as the pandemic caused the largest global recession in history, with more than a third of the global population at the time being placed on lockdown
March 2020 carmakers in Europe suspending or cutting production due to coronavirus: 20 March 2020: Every major carmaker in the UK and Europe is suspending or cutting production as the disruption from the Chinese coronavirus outbreak spreads, with only lower-volume manufacturers keeping factories open
30 April 2020 Eurozone records 3.8% slump in first quarter: 30 April 2020: Eurozone records 3.8% slump, as ECB chief Lagarde warns of worse to come saying there could be a 15% collapse after record first quarter output fall caused by covid-19 pandemic, with France and Italy falling into recession, as Spain reported a quarterly drop of 5.2%, while Belgian and Austrian GDPs fell by 3.9% and 2.5%, and as Germany, not releasing its growth figures, but reported a 373,000 increase in unemployment and a jump to 10.1 million workers on reduced hours in April
7 July 2020 Europe faces deep recession EC says: 7 July 2020: Europe faces deep recession and UK will shrink by 10%, says EC, as gloomy forecast comes 10 days before EU leaders meet to discuss €750bn recovery plan
31 July 2020 Eurozone economy shrinks by record 12.1% in Q2 due to covid-19: 31 July 2020: Eurozone economy shrinks by record 12.1% due to covid-19 pandemic, as data reveals contraction in second quarter wiped out more than decade of expansion
26 October 2020 stock markets in Europe and the USA fell sharply amid further covid-19 impacts: 26 October 2020: Stock markets in Europe and the USA fell sharply as investors focused on signs that rich countries’ efforts to contain the coronavirus pandemic were foundering, and as the Stoxx 600 index lost 1.8% after heavy falls in German blue-chip stocks while countries across Europe have reported increasing numbers of confirmed covid-19 cases, and governments have reimposed restrictions that are expected to limit the economic recovery from the first wave of the pandemic
30 April 2021 Eurozone falls into double-dip recession: 30 April 2021: Eurozone falls into double-dip recession amid covid-19 pandemic, 'The Guardian' reports live




Since about 105,000 years ago global agriculture and in the Levant: Agriculture and history, as agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa in at least 11 separate centres of origin, as wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, as from around 11,500 years ago the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant, as rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC, as sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago, as cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago, as pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia, as in the Andes of South America the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs, as sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago, as sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, as cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago and was independently domesticated in Eurasia, and as in Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago
Basis der Sozialstruktur von Hirtennomaden ist die Verwandtschaft, wobei zum Schutz der Herden und zur Koordination der komplexen Weidezyklen mehrere Familien kooperieren und Nomadenlager bilden, zumeist akephal (herrscherlos) und egalitär (soziale Gleichheit), und als Ethnien darüber hinaus in segmentären Gesellschaften oder auch in Stämmen organisiert, die sich in Krisenzeiten zum Teil zu Stammesverbänden zusammenschließen
Seßhaftigkeit: Nach heutigem Kenntnisstand der Archäologie war die ortsfeste Landwirtschaft nicht die Ursache der Seßhaftigkeit sondern ihre Folge, da gut belegt ist, daß es in der Levante (Westliches Vorderasien) bereits viele Jahrtausende vor der Jungsteinzeit im Epipaläolithikum zu ortsfesten Ansiedlungen kam - Neolithische Siedlungen und ihre geographischen Beziehungen im fruchtbaren Halbmond - Als Entstehungsgebiete der Landwirtschaft (und Seßhaftigkeit) gelten - nach Jared Diamond und Peter Bellwood - 'Fruchtbarer Halbmond' (9500 v. Chr.), China (7000 v. Chr.), Neuguinea (7000–6000 v. Chr.), Mexiko (3000–2000 v. Chr.), Amerika (3000–2000 v. Chr.), Afrika südlich der Sahara (3000–2000 v. Chr.

Types of populated places (Siedlungsformen): Types of populated places (Siedlungsformen)

Holy Roman Empire 800/962–1806 'translatio imperii' taken from 'translatio studii': The origin and name of the 'Holy Roman Empire' 800/962–1806 and its history - 'Translatio imperii' (transfer of rule) concept that originated from the Middle Ages, in which history is viewed as a linear succession of transfers of an imperium that invests supreme power in a singular ruler, an 'emperor' (or sometimes even several emperors, e.g., the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Holy Roman Empire), as the concept is linked to 'ecclesiastical translation' (including the transfer of a bishop from one episcopal see to another, 'apostolic succession'), taken from the 'translatio studii', thought to have their origins in the second chapter of the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible
Feudalism and manorialism in Medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries: Feudalism, a historiographical term used to describe the combination of the legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe between the 9th and 15th centuries, seen as a way of structuring society around relationships that were derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labor, and as - although it is derived from the Roman (Latin) word feodum or feudum used during the Medieval period - the term feudalism and the system which it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people who lived during the Middle Ages - Manorialism, also known as seignorialism or the manorial system, was an organising principle of rural economies which vested legal and economic power in a lord of the manor, as - if the core of feudalism is defined as a set of legal and military relationships among nobles - manorialism extended this system to the legal and economic relationships between nobles and peasants, and as manorialism is sometimes included in the definition of feudalism - Rise of the territorial state - Territorialisierung
Taxation of the Jews in Europe: Taxation of the Jews in Europe, in addition to the taxes levied on the general population and imposed on the Jews by the authority or ruler of the territory in which they were living, playing an important part in Jewish history, as the abolition of special taxes on the Jews followed their admission to civil rights in France and elsewhere in Europe at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, and as the 'Leibzoll' or 'Judengeleit' was another special toll which Jews had to pay in most of the European states in the Middle Ages and up to the beginning of the nineteenth century - Medieval revival of the 'Fiscus Judaicus' (tax imposed on Jews in their land by the Roman Empire after the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple in AD 70), revived in 1342 under the name of 'Opferpfennig' by the 'Holy Roman Emperors, first introduced by Emperor Louis IV the Bavarian, who ordered all Jews above the age of 12 and possessing 20 gulden to pay one gulden annually for protection, justified on the grounds that the emperor, as the legal successor of the Roman emperors, was the rightful recipient of the Temple tax which Jews paid to the Romans after the destruction of the Second Temple, and as the originally Guldenpfennig and then Opferpfennig was collected on Christmas day

Possession and ownership, estate in land, land grab and 'Decimatores': Warenbesitzer (Waren sind Dinge und daher widerstandslos gegen den Menschen) beziehen Dinge als Waren aufeinander indem sie sich zueinander als Personen verhalten, deren Willen in jenen Dingen haust, so daß der eine nur mit dem Willen des andren, also jeder nur vermittelst eines, beiden gemeinsamen Willensakts sich die fremde Ware aneignet, indem er die eigne veräußert, wobei sie sich wechselseitig als Privateigentümer anerkennen in einem Rechtsverhältnis, dessen Form der Vertrag ist (ob nun legal entwickelt oder nicht) - Possession, the control a person intentionally exercises toward a commodity (use value and value) in the 'Exchange Process', but - in order to relate these objects to one another as commodities, their keepers must relate to each other as persons, whose wills reside in these objects, and so - in order to appropriate the commodity of the other and alienate his own - each owner has to consent with the other, i.e., it is an act of will common to both parties, and the keepers must therefore recognize each other as the private owners of their commodities, and this juridical relation, whose form is the contract, whether as part of a developed legal system or not, is a relation between wills, in which the economic relation reflects itself - 'Estate' in land, the soil or bottom of the Earth, neither as a whole nor as a piece, isn't and cannot be in the 'Exchange Process' - Verwandlung von Surplusprofit in Grundrente
Natural tax (Naturalsteuer, Zehnt): Der 'Decimator' (Zehentner) war ein mittelalterlicher Amtsträger oder Beauftragter von Klöstern, Pfarren, Grundherren oder Zehntpächtern, dessen Aufgabe es war, den Zehnt (Natural tax) einzutreiben, während zur Aufbewahrung des Zehnten große Zehntscheunen gebaut wurden, damit die Zehntpflichtigen ihre Abgaben dort oder am Zehnthof selbst ablieferten, wobei der Begriff gelegentlich auch für die Empfänger des Zehnts angewandt wurde, so z. B. die 'Decimatores majores', d. h. die Empfänger des 'Großen Zehnten', und die 'Decimatores minores', die Nutznießer des 'Kleinen Zehnten' - Zehnthof, der Hof, auf dem der fällige Zehnt abzuliefern war - Zehntscheunen, Lagerhäuser zur Annahme und Aufbewahrung der Naturalsteuer (Zehnt)

Agriculture in the Middle Ages: Agriculture in the Middle Ages
Craft activities, domestic production: Im weitgehend bäuerlich geprägten Frühmittelalter spielten die sich später spezialisierenden Handwerkstätigkeiten wie die Verarbeitung von Nahrungsmitteln, die Herstellung von Textilien oder das Fertigen von Geräten und Bauten aus Holz noch eine verschwindend geringe Rolle gegenüber der häuslichen Eigenproduktion
Evolution of the natural tax and opposition: Entwicklung des 'Zehnt' - der auf dem Grund liegenden Abgabe in Naturalien - im Mittelalter, die zunächst direkt an den Pfarrer abzuliefern war, sich aber seit etwa dem Jahr 1000 von der Pfarrorganisation weitgehend getrennt hatte, während aufgrund der geringer gewordenen Seßhaftigkeit der Bevölkerung der Zehnt von einer persönlichen Leistung zu einer an das Grundstück gebundenen Abgabe verwandelt wurde und die Empfänger des Zehnten das Recht der Zehnterhebung oft verpachteten um zu gewünschten festen Einnahmen zu kommen, wobei dann zur Zeit der Reformation 93%t der Pfründen nicht bei einer Pfarrei angesiedelt waren, mit dem Ergebnis einer daraus resultierenden Verdrossenheit der hart arbeitenden und dennoch armen Bevölkerung, der Nährboden für die Bauernaufstände und die Reformation im 16. Jahrhundert

Medieval fortifications and militarization, including all areas of life: Fortifications by period - Medieval fortifications, defensive against military attacks by other land robbers but offensive against the peasants, serf farmers and the rural population - Medieval military technologies - Siege engine
City walls: City walls, defensive against military attacks but offensive against the peasants, serf farmers and the rural population

Town privileges: Town privileges - History of urban centers in the Low Countries - City rights in the Low Countries - Free imperial city - List of towns in Europe with German town law
Medieval concept of ordered practices or skills: Artes mechanicae (mechanical arts), a medieval concept of ordered practices or skills, often juxtaposed to the traditional seven liberal arts (artes liberales), also called 'servile' and 'vulgar' from antiquity, deemed unbecoming for a free man ministering to baser needs, including vestiaria (tailoring, weaving), agricultura (agriculture), architectura (architecture, masonry), militia and venatoria (warfare and hunting, military education, 'martial arts'), mercatura (trade), coquinaria (cooking), metallaria (blacksmithing, metallurgy
Medieval technology amid the rise of towns (and some town privileges): Medieval technology, the technology used in medieval Europe, as since the 12th century the territorial states and rising towns across the whole continent (as part of Eurasia) saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth, as the period saw major technological advances, including the adoption of gunpowder, the invention of vertical windmills, spectacles, mechanical clocks, and greatly improved water mills, building techniques (Gothic architecture, medieval castles), and agriculture in general (three-field crop rotation)
Markets, stone processing, not location-bound builders and further professional traditions, education: Während spezielle Arbeitstechniken, wie Bronzeguss, Malerei und Bildhauerei, im Mittelalter zunächst an Klöster gebunden waren erhielten im Hochmittelalter und mit der Städtebildung urbane Zentren ihre antike Bedeutung zurück, und die hergestellten Waren wurden auf Märkten feilgeboten oder in Werkstätten und Läden ausgestellt und verkauft, wobei Baumeister und Steinhauer eine Ausnahmerolle spielten insofern sie von einer (Kirchen-)Bauhütte zur nächsten ziehend, über territoriale Grenzen hinweg Fertigkeiten, Innovationen und Stilentwicklungen verbreiteten - Medieval European education - Around 1433 Johannes Gutenberg of the city of Mainz developed European movable type printing technology with the printing press and in just over a decade, the European age of printing began, as evidence shows a more complex evolutionary process, spread over multiple locations

Medieval development of the merchant capital and trade routes: Das Kaufmannskapital erscheint als historische Form des Kapitals lange bevor das Kapital sich die Produktion selbst unterworfen hat, und seine Existenz und Entwicklung zu einer gewissen Höhe ist selbst historische Voraussetzung für die Entwicklung der kapitalistischen Produktionsweise, 1. als Vorbedingung der Konzentration von Geldvermögen, und 2. weil die kapitalistische Produktionsweise Produktion für den Handel voraussetzt, Absatz im großen und nicht an den einzelnen Kunden, also auch einen Kaufmann, der nicht zur Befriedigung seines persönlichen Bedürfnisses kauft, sondern die Kaufakte vieler in seinem Kaufakt konzentriert, während andrerseits die Entwicklung des Kaufmannskapitals darauf hinwirkt, der Produktion einen mehr und mehr auf den Tauschwert gerichteten Charakter zu geben, die Produkte mehr und mehr in Waren zu verwandeln - Trading posts of the Hanseatic League - Map of medieval trade route networks

Medieval development of money lending and banking since 5th century: Medieval development of money lending and banking and of a banking system since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, and amid religious restrictions on interest - Medieval currencies

Since 1492/93 'The Bulls of Donation', presumption of global jurisdiction: Since 1492/93 presumption of global jurisdiction in order to legitimize land grab, first including 'The Bulls of Donation' (Alexandrine Bulls), three papal bulls of Pope Alexander VI which purported to grant overseas territories to Portugal and the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, as a fourth bull followed later in 1493, and all four bulls were replaced by the 'Treaty of Tordesillas' of 1494
Since 1492 language confusion and Native American name controversy: Since 1492 Native American name controversy concerning Latin America, South and North America
Since 1789 and 1848 Revolutions and Counter-Revolution in European countries: Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany, a book by Friedrich Engels, with contributions by Karl Marx, and originally a series of articles in the New York Daily Tribune published from 1851 to 1852. first published in book form under the editorship of Eleanor Marx Aveling in 1896 - 1851-1852 Revolution und Konterrevolution in Deutschland und Europa

Since 1914 war objectives in world wars of Central and Axis powers and language confusion: Les buts de guerre des Empires centraux sur le plan territorial, politique et économique de la Première Guerre mondiale - 20th century Axis powers' ideology and wars as their primary goal was territorial expansion at the expense of their neighbors

Since 1920 'Völkischer Beobachter' German NSDAP newspaper and Adolf Hitler's ownership: Since 1920 'Völkischer Beobachter', the newspaper of the German NSDAP, as it first appeared weekly, then daily from 8 February 1923 forming part of the official public face of the NSDAP and the German empire until 1945, as the paper had its origin as the 'Münchener Beobachter', an anti-Semitic semi-weekly scandal-oriented paper which in 1918 was acquired by the Thule Society, and as in 1921 Adolf Hitler, who had taken full control of the NSDAP earlier that year, acquired all shares in the company, making him the sole owner of the publication - Other newspapers of NSDAP Germany included 'Der Angriff', 'Berliner Arbeiterzeitung', 'Illustrierter Beobachter', 'Das Reich', 'Panzerbär', 'Das Schwarze Korps', 'Der Stürmer', and more
20th century Axis powers' ideology and wars as their primary goal was territorial expansion at the expense of their neighbors

Aftermath of World War II by country, including corruption and language confusion
16 March 2015 corruption in the media is killing ethical journalism: 16 March 2015: Corruption in the media is killing ethical journalism, European Federation of Journalists EJN says
17 March 2015 conflict of journalism and HSBC tax evasion's patrons: 17 March 2015: The conflict of interest between advertiser power and journalism revealed by Peter Oborne, who walked out of Britain's Daily Telegraph accusing the management of censoring stories about HSBC bank and tax evasion, is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to corruption inside media
April 2018 Hungarian journalists admit role in forging anti-migrant 'atmosphere of fear': 13 April 2018: Hungarian journalists admit role in forging anti-migrant 'atmosphere of fear' ahead of Victor Orbán’s election victory this week, as the 'Guardian' spoke to several employees of the taxpayer-funded MTVA network to hear the inside story of how its channels pumped out government messaging, and at times false stories, with the goal of winning support for Orban's anti-immigration message
June 2018 Fifa’s World Cup is toxic handing World Cup to kleptomaniac murderers who run Russia: 9 June 2018: Fifa’s World Cup is toxic, British Guardian/Observer columnist Nick Cohen explains, after Zurich’s masters of corruption Fifa handed the World Cup first to kleptomaniac murderers who run Russia and then to the overseers of a serf economy in Qatar
21 April 2021 KGB/FSI Putin regime's police have arrested key supporters of Alexei Navalny: 21 April 2021: KGB/FSI Putin regime's police have arrested key supporters of Alexei Navalny and begun closing down central squares in Moscow and other cities before demonstrations planned for Wednesday evening in support of the jailed opposition leader, while regime critic’s regional headquarters have also been raided as police seek to disrupt, and eventually liquidate, his political organisation across Russia, and as tensions have grown between regime and western capitals over concerns about Navalny’s health in prison, as well as Russia’s military build-up on the border with Ukraine, and accusations of aggressive Russian intelligence operations including a fatal explosion at a Czech ammunition dump in 2014

'Prehistoric' Europe is Europe with human presence but before the start of recorded history, beginning in the Lower Paleolithic, as considerable regional irregularities of cultural development were emerging and increasing, as the region of the eastern Mediterranean is, due to its geographic proximity, greatly influenced and inspired by the classical Middle Eastern civilizations, and adopts and develops the earliest systems of communal organization and writing - Paleolithic Europe, the Lower or Old Stone Age in Europe, encompasses the era from the arrival of the first archaic humans, about 1.4 million years ago until the beginning of the Mesolithic (also Epipaleolithic) around 10,000 years ago, as this period thus covers over 99% of the total human presence on the European continent - Social history of Europe listed by today's countries - Economic history of Europe since Middle Ages following the decline and downfall of the Roman empire - Slavery in Europe

1219-1806 Europe's free imperial city states, prosperity, becoming targets of more or less brutal wars, first completed by Napoleon's wars: 1219-1806 Free Imperial City of Nuremberg - independent city-state - within the Holy Roman Empire, after Nuremberg gained piecemeal independence from the Burgraviate in the High Middle Ages, leading to the economic and cultural flowering of the city and surrounding areas in the 15th and 16th centuries, making it the center of the German Renaissance also with increased trade routes and therefore becoming a target for in the coming periods of war, as the ravages of the major European wars of the 17th and 18th centuries caused the city to decline and incur sizeable debts, resulting in the city's absorption into the new Kingdom of Bavaria on the signing of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, becoming one of the many territorial casualties of the Napoleonic Wars
July-September 1632 Siege of Nuremberg: July-September 1632 Siege of Nuremberg, a battle campaign that took place in 1632 about the Imperial City of Nuremberg during the 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War - Simplicius Simplicissimus, written in 1668 by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and probably published the same year, inspired by the events and horrors of the 'Thirty Years' War' which devastated Germany from 1618 to 1648, and regarded as the first adventure novel in the German language and the first German novel masterpiece
Organization of medieval 'Free imperial city' states: Organization and development of medieval 'Free imperial city' states in Europe
Since 15th century development of medieval 'Free imperial city' states in central Europe including later Switzerland: 16th and 17th century, a number of Imperial Cities separated from the Empire, including cities connected to the 'Old Swiss Confederacy', gaining its formal independence from the Empire in 1648 after de facto independence since 1499, as also tthe independence of the Imperial Cities of Basel, Bern, Lucerne, St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, Solothurn, and Zürich was formally recognized by the empire - Territorial growth of Bern, the largest free imperial city until 1798
Territory of independent city-state Nuremberg, and after city of Bern left to join the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1353: Territory of independent city-state Nuremberg, comprising some 1,200 square kilometres, making it one of the largest imperial cities territories, after the Imperial City of Bern left to join the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1353, only the Imperial Cities of Ulm and Strasbourg had anything like the same amount of land
1799-1804 from French Consulate to 'First French Empire': From 9 November 1799 Coup of 18 Brumaire, that brought General Napoleon Bonaparte to power as First Consul of France, ending the French Revolution since 1789, as Napoleon now established a political system of 'dictatorship by plebiscite', as Napoleon resorted to regular electoral consultations with the French people on his road to imperial power, drafting the Constitution of the Year VIII securing his own election as First Consul, taking up residence at the Tuileries, and as the constitution was approved in a rigged plebiscite held the following January with 99.94% officially listed as voting 'yes', and as in 1800, Napoleon and his troops crossed the Swiss Alps into Italy, aiming to surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Napoleon was still in Egypt imitating Roman empire's Caesar, followed by Napoleon's invasion of Haiti to knock down the revolution of former slaves, followed by 'First French Empire' since 2 December 1804, when Napoleon used assassination plots to justify the creation of an imperial system based on the Roman model, 18 centuries earlier, as at Napoleon's coronation with Pope Pius VII in Notre Dame de Paris on 2 December two separate crowns were brought for the ceremony, a golden laurel wreath recalling the Roman Empire and a replica of Charlemagne's crown
Since 1802 German mediatisation under pressure from emerging emperor Napoleon, e.g. 1806 Nuremberg city state part of the Kingdom of Bavaria: 1802-1814 German mediatisation, the major territorial restructuring in Germany and the surrounding region by means of the mass mediatisation and secularisation under relentless military and diplomatic pressure from France and and emerging emperor Napoleon of a large number of Imperial Estates, as free imperial cities, secular principalities, most ecclesiastical principalities, and other minor self-ruling entities of the Holy Roman Empire lost their independent status, as by the end of the mediatisation process the number of German states had been reduced from almost 300 to just 39 - 1806 Nuremberg City becomes part of the Kingdom of Bavaria, per July 1806 'Treaty of Confederation of the Rhine' directed by emperor Napoleon of the 'First French Empire' in his function as leader also of the 'Confederation of the Rhine' 1806-1813

Alpine countries, the territory of eight European countries in the Alpine region, and more groups clockwise: Alpine countries, the territory of eight countries in the Alpine region in the 21st century including Switzerland, France, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and in another group Germany, Italy and Austria - Landesflächen und Alpenfläche der acht europäischen Alpenländer, aufgelistet und betrachtet in alphabischer Reihenfolge - Regionale Staatengruppen in Europa, zusammenfaßt in Alpenländer, Balkanhalbinsel, Westbalkan, EU-Südstaaten, Mittelmeeranrainerstaat, Iberische Halbinsel, Britische Inseln, Benelux Länder, Skandinavische Halbinsel und nordische Länder, Lublin-Dreieck (dreigliedrige Plattform für die politische, wirtschaftliche, kulturelle und soziale Zusammenarbeit zwischen Litauen, Polen und der Ukraine zur Unterstützung der Integration der Ukraine in die EU)

Since 18th/19th century collapse of independent Swiss Confederacy amid European wars, opposition against every war and new Swiss Confederation: Switzerland January-May 1798 French invasion of Switzerland as part of the 'French Revolutionary Wars', as the independent Old Swiss Confederacy collapsed from the invasion, and as before 1798, the modern region of Vaud belonged to the Canton of Bern, to which it had a dependent status, and as the majority of Francophone catholic Vaudois felt oppressed by the German-speaking protestant majority of Bern - in the Napoleonic era, as in 1798 Switzerland was completely overrun by the French, renamed the Helvetic Republic now encountering severe economic and political problems becaming a battlefield of French Revolutionary Wars, culminating in the Battles of Zürich in 1799 involving Habsburg Monarchy, Russian Empire, and France on its way to the 'First French empire' - 1799-1800 Italian and Swiss expeditions undertaken by a combined Austro-Russian army against French forces in Piedmont, Lombardy and Switzerland as part of the Italian campaigns of French first consul Napoleon, after Battle of Winterthur and followed by 1802/03 civil war, the end of the Republic and more battles, followed by restoration and regeneration in Switzerland 1814 (Congress of Vienn), 1847 civil war, then opposition against every war, and therefore leading to a new 'Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848' and the 'Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation' in April 1999, the third and current federal constitution of Switzerland, establishing the Swiss Confederation as a federal republic of 26 cantons and containing a catalogue of individual and popular rights (including the right to call for popular referenda on federal laws and constitutional amendments), delineating the responsibilities of the cantons and the Confederation and establishing the federal authorities of government, adopted by a referendum

14 May 1948 Provisional Government of Israel's Declaration of Independence, first saying 'ERETZ-ISRAEL (the Land of Israel, Palestine) was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books. After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom. ... AND, BY VIRTUE OF OUR NATURAL AND HISTORIC RIGHT AND ON THE STRENGTH OF THE RESOLUTION OF THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY, HEREBY DECLARE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A JEWISH STATE IN ERETZ-ISRAEL, TO BE KNOWN AS THE STATE OF ISRAEL - 1958-2018 list of the Basic Laws of Israel, as Basic Laws were intended to be draft chapters of a future Israeli constitution (which has been postponed since 1950), as they act as a de facto constitution until their future incorporation into a formal, unitary, written constitution, as Israel is one of 6 countries (along with Canada, New Zealand, San Marino, Saudi Arabia and the UK) that functions according to an uncodified constitution consisting of both material constitutional law (based upon cases and precedents), common law, and the provisions of these formal statutes

Timeline of Jerusalem, Israel and Judah social movements of 66 CE and aftermath: Timeline of Jerusalem riots of 66, referring to the massive unrest in the center of Roman Judea, which became the catalyst of the First Jewish–Roman War, after - according to Josephus - the violence of the year 66 initially began at Caesarea, provoked by Greeks of a certain merchant house sacrificing birds in front of a local synagogue, as the Roman garrison did not intervene there and thus the long-standing Hellenistic and Jewish religious tensions took a downward spiral, and as - in reaction - a Jewish Temple clerks ceased prayers and sacrifices for the Roman emperor at the Temple
Since 66 CE timeline of Roman empire's first Jewish–Roman War 66–73 CE: Since 66 CE timeline Roman empire's first Jewish–Roman War War 66–73 CE
66–74 AD gospel of Mark: 66–74 AD Gospel of Mark of the four canonical gospels and of the three synoptic Gospels, telling of the ministry of Jesus from his baptism by John the Baptist to his death and burial and the discovery of Jesus' empty tomb, as there is no miraculous birth or doctrine of divine pre-existence, nor, in the original ending (Mark 16:1-8), any post-resurrection appearances of Jesus, as it portrays Jesus as a heroic man of action, an exorcist, a healer, and a miracle worker, also the Son of God, but keeping his messianic nature secret
Following the AD 70 destruction of Jerusalem most scholars believe the gospel of Matthew was composed between AD 80 and 90: Setting of the gospel of Matthew, a work of the second generation of Christians, after the defining event was the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple by the Romans in AD 70 ending the course of the First Jewish–Roman War AD 66–73
Since around AD 80–110 gospel of Luke: Gospel of Luke, together with the Acts of the Apostles, it makes up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts, accounting together for 27.5% of the 'New Testament', as most probable date for its composition is around AD 80–110, and there is evidence that it was still being revised well into the 2nd century
Since AD 90–110 gospel of John: Gospel of John, the fourth of the four canonical gospels, reaching its final form around AD 90–110

April 2020 researchers say Vatican archives show pope Pius XII knew of WWII killing of Jews: 30 April 2020: Researchers studying the newly opened Vatican archives of pope Pius XII have already found evidence that the World War II-era pope knew about the mass killing of Jews from his own sources but kept it from the USA government, the Washington Post reported Wednesday, saying documents indicate pope was aware of massacre of Jews in Warsaw and Lviv from own sources, but denied it to Americans

From July 1942 German SS and police units carried out mass deportations from the Warsaw ghetto to the Treblinka killing center: As from July 1942 German SS and police units, assisted by auxiliaries, carried out mass deportations from the Warsaw ghetto to the Treblinka killing center, described as the 'Great Action', as the Germans deported about 265,000 Jews from Warsaw to Treblinka
January 1943 in German ideology not expected Jewish resistance and attack disoriented the Germans: As by the summer of 1942 it was clear to ghetto inhabitants that deportations from the ghetto meant death, and in response to these deportations, several Jewish underground organizations banded together and created an armed self-defense unit known as the Jewish Combat Organization ZOB and also a second force called the Jewish Military Union ZZW, and as in January 1943, German SS and police units returned to the Warsaw ghetto to resume mass deportations, a small group of Jewish fighters, armed with pistols, infiltrated a column of Jews being forced to the transfer point 'Umschlagplatz', and - after this group broke ranks and fought their German escorts - most of the Jewish fighters died in the battle, but the not expected resistance and attack disoriented the Germans, and as a result, the Jews who were arranged in columns at the Umschlagplatz had a chance to disperse, as in January/February 1943 German empire's army lost the battle of Stalingrad, described as the biggest defeat in the history of the German Army, after NSDAP's Adolf Hitler had declared in a public speech in September 1942 that the German army would never leave the city
Since January 1943 Jewish resistance leaders encouraged fellow ghetto inhabitants to defy deportation orders: Jewish resistance leaders also encouraged fellow ghetto inhabitants to defy deportation orders and hide from German authorities, after - seizing only 5,000-6,500 ghetto residents - the Germans suspended further deportations on January 21, and as - encouraged by the apparent success of the resistance - people in the ghetto began to construct subterranean bunkers and shelters, preparing for an uprising should the Germans - certainly not to be overcome in Warsaw in 1943 with the given means of resistance - attempt a final deportation of the remaining Jews from the ghetto, as the Jews decided against extermination without resistance, that could be told to future generations, therefore documented, e.g. by the Ringelblum archiv, because the - also consciously brought about in Jerusalem by the young man himself called upon misunderstood Jewish prophets whose scriptures must be fulfilled - martyr's death of Jesus Christ nearly 2000 years ago, which weakened the Jewish resistance to the brutal Roman empire, almost like the Nazis, wasn't the goal of the Jews in Warsaw, Poland, Europe etc during WWII
Since 19 April 1943 final act of Warsaw's Jewish resistance against the Germans, lasting 27 days: On April 19, 1943, the eve of the Passover holiday, the Jews of the Warsaw ghetto began their final act of resistance against the Germans, lasting twenty-seven days, as this act of resistance came to be known as the Warsaw ghetto uprising, as ZOB fighters were armed with only pistols, grenades (many of which were homemade), and a few automatic weapons and rifles, but they stunned the Germans and their auxiliaries on the first day of fighting, forcing German troops to retreat outside the ghetto wall, as SS leader Stroop reported losing 12 men during the first assault, as about 700 young Jewish fighters clashed with German forces, sometimes in hand-to-hand combat, as in the end the Germans razed the ghetto to the ground, burning and demolishing this part of Warsaw, block by block, and as on 16 May it was announced in a report to Berlin that 'the former Jewish Quarter in Warsaw is no more', written by Waffen-SS Jürger Stroop, born 1895 in Detmold (Lippe) near Augustdorf and the today's GFM Erwin Rommel barracks

Since June 1945 'Christian Democratic Union of Germany' political party in Germany, the major 'catch-all party' German politics, that since its re-establishment with a little changed religious affiliation included a large number of NSDAP members, in Hitler's party until empire's defeat in 1945, remaining attached to their career - Since December 1870 'German Centre Party', belonging to the political spectrum of 'Political Catholicism' that, emerging in the early 19th century after the turmoil of the Napoleonic wars, as the many Catholics found themselves in Protestant dominated states, since 1871 primarily influential during the Kaiserreich and the Weimar Republic, soon winning a quarter of the seats in the Reichstag (Imperial Parliament), and its middle position on most issues allowed it to play a decisive role in the formation of majorities, as for most of the Weimar Republic, the Centre Party was the third-largest party in the Reichstag, and - following NSDAP Adolf Hitler's rise to power in early 1933, the Centre Party was among the parties who voted for the 'Enabling Act', which granted legislative powers to Hitler's government
April 2020 researchers say Vatican archives show pope Pius XII knew of WWII killing of Jews: 30 April 2020: Researchers studying the newly opened Vatican archives of pope Pius XII have already found evidence that the World War II-era pope knew about the mass killing of Jews from his own sources but kept it from the USA government, the Washington Post reported Wednesday, saying documents indicate pope was aware of massacre of Jews in Warsaw and Lviv from own sources, but denied it to Americans


Demographics of Europe: Demographics of Europe - Demographics of Europe, as of 2010 Europe's population within the standard physical geographical boundaries was 740 million according to the United Nations - Demographics of the European Union, as of 2014 the population of the EU of 28 member states is about 507.4 million people
Ethnic groups in Europe: Ethnic groups in Europe - Ethnic groups in Europe by region - Ethnic groups in Europe by country
African diaspora in Europe and immigration: African diaspora in Europe by country - African immigration to Europe
Jews and Judaism in Europe: History of the Jews in Europe, stretching back over two thousand years - Jews and Judaism in Europe - Jews and Judaism in Europe by country
25 October 2020 an estimated 1.3 million Jews live in Europe today: 25 October 2020: Europe has lost almost 60% of its Jewish population over the past 50 years, mainly as a result of the collapse of the Soviet Union, as only about 9% of the global Jewish population now lives in Europe, compared with nearly 90% in the late 19th century (but similar to the proportion 1,000 years ago), and as in total an estimated 1.3 million Jews live in Europe in 2020, about 0.1% of the continent’s population, with two-thirds of them in France, the UK and Germany
8 April 2021 Holocaust Remembrance Day: 8. April Gedenktag für die Märtyrer und Helden des Holocaust 2021
Kurdish diaspora in Europe: Kurdish diaspora in Europe - European people of Kurdish descent - Kurdish people by country of citizenship
23 October 2019 Syrian Kurdish man set himself on fire outside the UN: 23 October 2019: Syrian Kurdish man, who resides in Germany, set himself on fire outside the UN refugee agency headquarters in Geneva, then tried to enter the UNHCR building, and was flown by helicopter to the specialised burns unit at the university hospital in Lausanne
Middle Eastern diaspora in Europe: Middle Eastern diaspora in Europe by country
Romani in Europe: Romani in Europe by country - Romani people in Germany - Central Council of German Sinti and Roma
8 April 2021 International Roma Day: 8. April 2021: Sinti und Roma sind in Europa immer noch von Apartheid und Gewalt bedroht, und der Internationale Roma Tag erinnert daran, dass es eine gesamtgesellschaftliche Aufgabe ist, die Bürgerrechte zu stärken und den Antiziganismus kontinuierlich und dauerhaft zu ächten, weil es beschämend und nicht hinnehmbar ist daß Sinti und Roma in vielen Teilen Europas - trotz ihrer Jahrhunderte alten Geschichte und trotz der Erfahrung des Holocaust - noch heute mit Apartheid und Gewalt konfrontiert werden obwohl sie Staatsbürger ihrer Heimatländer sind

Human rights in Europe: Human rights in Europe - European Network of National Human Rights Institutions - Human rights by country - List of Human Rights organisations
Since 1791 emancipation: Timeline of emancipation, i.e. years when legal equality was 'granted' to Jews, since 1791 in France - Année d'obtention de l'égalité des droits pour les Juifs en Europe
1794 first general abolition of slavery: Abolitionist movement to end slavery and first general abolition of slavery on 4 February 1794 in France - Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
2015 EU parliament accused of 'hiding away' proof of torture by Assad regime: 19 June 2015: European parliament accused of 'hiding away' proof of torture by Assad regime, after MEPs decided against holding a major public exhibition of photographs documenting torture and abuse in Syrian Assad regime institutions, deeming the images too provocative, 'disturbing and offensive', wanting to host only cultural events and exhibits
2016 international refugee crisis and EU officials: 12 March 2016: As thousands of desperate refugees remain trapped at border camp between Greece and Macedonia and as 'Europe is on the cusp of a largely self-induced humanitarian crisis' according to UN, USA Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs Victoria Nuland visits the refugee camp in Idomeni, but there is no European official walking around the muddy fields and talking with aid agency workers, refugees and migrants, because European officials prefer hotels in Moscow, Tehran, Vienna, Brussels and after all Geneva, talking and laughing with war criminals and perpetrators - 15 March 2016: Macedonia forcibly ('they hit everyone – women, children, men') returns thousands of exhausted refugees to Greece, after desperate men, women and children fled Greek camp a day earlier - 15 March 2016: Seeing Macedonian authorities sending people back in trucks to Greece late at night, dropping children off shivering, wet and disoriented, 'Save the Children' criticizes 'the wholly inadequate response of European leaders to this crisis, which treats people like bargaining chips and leaves them stranded with no safe plan for their future' - 14 juillet 2016: Des migrants violentés par des forces hongroises à la frontière hongroise avec la Serbie
2017 violence in Spain: 1 October 2017: Muted response from EU leaders over police crackdown in Catalonia, as Belgian PM Michel and senior MEP Verhofstadt among the few national leaders to denounce violence and human right groups also condemn the violence
January 2019 HRW report: 17 January 2019: Migration used to stoke fear in the EU, justify abusive policies, and block meaningful reform in 2018, even as arrivals at borders decreased, according to HRW in its report 2019, saying in 2017/2018 that xenophobic populists hostile to human rights shaped politics even when they failed to win at the ballot box, and European governments seemed determined to keep migrants away at all costs
June 2019 demanded prosecution of the EU for the deaths of thousands of migrants who drowned in the Mediterranean: 3 June 2019: The EU and member states should be prosecuted for the deaths of thousands of migrants who drowned in the Mediterranean fleeing Libya, according to a detailed legal submission to the international criminal court ICC
November 2019 EU democracy is under threat: 4 November 2019: According to the YouGov poll of 12,500 people in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia, published by George Soros’s Open Societies Foundations, majorities between 51% and 61% in six countries - including Germany - feel democracy is under threat, 30 years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, but also demonstrating 'that where the establishment has failed citizens, civil society is perceived as a trustworthy counterpart'
March 2020 ignorant and violent EU amid war crimes against Syrian people: 2 March 2020: Refugees and migrants trying to reach Europe have clashed violently with Greek riot police as Turkey claimed more than 76,000 people were now heading for an ignorant EU amid war crimes, as a result of the escalating war in Syria where 33 Turkish soldiers, defending civilians, were killed by Russian-backed dictatorship troops, as a million civilians have been displaced since December inside Syria near the Turkish border in desperate winter conditions, and as Turkey, already home to 3.7 million Syrian refugees, decided to open the Turkish side of the border to the EU, now headed by CDU's von der Leyen - 2 March 2020: Child drowns at sea off Greece in first fatality of EU von der Leyen's cronyism with Russian, Iranian and Assad regime's war criminals
2 March 2020 UN says Russia committed war crimes in Syria as world expects end of impunity: 2 March 2020: Russia committed war crimes in Syria, finds UN report, as Putin regime blamed for indiscriminate attacks in civilian areas without 'a specific military objective', also documenting 'unprecedented levels of displacement and dire conditions for civilians' in Syria
4 March 2020 doctors who flew to Lesbos to help refugees forced to flee: 4 March 2020: Doctors who flew to Lesbos to volunteer at Moria migrant camp have described how they were forced to flee after being set upon by a mob wielding nail-headed cudgels, the latest in a series of violent incidents targeting international aid workers, amid an increasingly hostile climate, enforced by the Greek government and EU commission, praising Greece as 'shield' and announcing taxpayers's €700m in EU funds for Greece, including €350m available immediately to upgrade 'infrastructure' at the border, instead of aid and tackling the causes of the refugee crisis
16 March 2020 child died in fire in overcrowded Moria camp: 16 March 2020: A young child died in a fire in an overcrowded migrant camp on the Greek island of Lesbos, as fire burned through two containers used as living quarters by people in the Moria camp, as well as some tents, as activists say 'European and Greek authorities who continue to contain people in such inhumane conditions have a responsibility'
17/18 December 2020 Europe's containment policies resulted in mental health crisis for refugees: 17 December 2020: Years of entrapment on Aegean islands has resulted in a mental health crisis for thousands of refugees, with one in three contemplating suicide, a report by support experts has revealed, as containment policies pursued by the EU have also spurred ever more people to attempt to end their lives, according to a report released by the International Rescue Committee IRC, ahead of the 'International Migrants Day' observed by all UN member states, committed to Human Rights, on 18 December 2020
8 April 2021 AI says hidden human rights crises threaten post-covid global security: 8 April 2021: Hidden human rights crises threaten post-covid global security, Amnesty International says, adding that ‘crises will multiply’ if escalating repression by governments under pretext of pandemic ignored, according to new elected secretary general and Amnesty International Report 2020/21, documenting the human rights situation in 149 countries in 2020, as well as providing global and regional analysis
4 July 2021 rights groups say companies have human rights and environmental obligations, calling for corporate accountability laws: 4 July 2021: Almost 30 organisations have joined forces to call for the UK to follow in the footsteps of its European partners by introducing corporate accountability laws requiring companies to undertake human rights and environmental due diligence across their supply chains, as the groups, including the TUC, Friends of the Earth and Amnesty International, say systemic human rights abuses and environmentally destructive practices are commonplace in the global operations and supply chains of UK businesses, and voluntary approaches to tackle the problem have failed, as some countries have already passed laws on supply chain due diligence, while the EU is to introduce obligations on all companies operating in the single market

Asylum and right of asylum in Europe: Right of asylum in Europe - Right of asylum in the European Union
Immigration to Europe: Immigration to Europe
2014-2016 International and European refugee and migrant crisis: 2014-2016 International and European refugee and migrant crisis - Border barriers constructed during the European migrant crisis
2014: 29 September 2014: A record 3,072 people had died attempting to reach Europe during the first nine months of 2014, the International Organisation for Migration says, urging the world’s governments to engage to stop this violence against desperate migrants
2015: During the first half of 2015, large numbers of Syrian refugees crosses into Europe, reaching 313 thousands - UNHCR applications across Europe by early August 2015 - 19 September 2015: In the international refugee crisis European neighbours turn ugly in a chaotic series of border confrontations and diplomatic disputes, as thousands fleeing war are blocked and shunted between Croatia, Hungary, Serbia and Slovenia and UN warns European unity at risk
Since 2015: Since 2015 Border barriers constructed during the European refugee and migrant crisis - Since June 2015 Hungarian border barrier - 28 November: Soldiers in Macedonia have begun erecting a metal fence on the country's southern border with Greece
2016: 30 January 2016: More than 52,000 refugees and migrants crossed the eastern Mediterranean to reach Europe in the first four weeks of January, more than 35 times as many as in the same period 2015 - 10 mars 2016: Après la fermeture de la route des Balkans aux migrants, la Grèce doit être soutenue, a déclaré la conseillère fédérale de la Suisse Simonetta Sommaruga à la réunion des ministres de l'intérieur et de la justice de l'UE
June 2018 EU to triple spending to €5bn a year targeting refugees and migrants: 12 June 2018: Unable to tackle causes of refugee crises, EU to triple spending to €5bn a year targeting refugees and migrants, as new border infrastructure, including scanners, automated number plate recognition systems, mobile laboratories for sample analysis, the establishment of teams of sniffer dogs, will be prioritised
June 2018 sharp fall in number of people seeking asylum in EU: 18 June 2018: The EU’s asylum office counted 728,470 applications for international protection in 2017, a 44% reduction on the 1.3m applications the previous year, after more than 1 million people entered the EU in 2015, many fleeing the war in Syria
July 2019 EU states' progress on plans to redistribute refugees: 23 July 2019: UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration said in a joint statement 'the crucial role played by NGOs must be acknowledged (and) they should not be criminalised nor stigmatised for saving lives at sea', as 14 EU states made progress on plans to redistribute refugees rescued in the Mediterranean, while eight said they would actively take part, including Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, and Portugal
31 December 2019 belief in Europe shattered: 31 December 2019: When photographer Alice Aedy first covered the refugee crisis in 2016 she believed Europe would respond with humanity to images of families seeking shelter and safety, now saying 'we have not only failed, we have broken promises'
5 March 2020 Turkey deploys police forces along its border with Greece to halt violent pushback of migrants: 5 March 2020: Turkey is deploying 1,000 special police forces along its border with Greece to halt the pushback of migrants towards its territory, Suleyman Soylu said, adding that 164 migrants had been wounded by Greek authorities
7/8 March 2020 refugee center set on fire: 7 mars 2020: Un centre d'accueil pour réfugiés sur l'île grecque de Lesbos, géré par un ONG suisse, a été incendié samedi, après des membres de l'extrême droite grecque et des habitants de l'île ont récemment protesté contre l'arrivée à Lesbos de plus de 1700 migrants et réfugiés venus de Turquie - 8 March 2020: Blaze at International School of Peace for Refugee Children in Lesbos, founded by Israelis, comes amid tense standoff with Turkey over refugees, as suspected arson caused second fire in under a week at a migrant installation

Causes of refugee crises include war and civil war, human rights violations, environment and climate crises, economic hardship
Since 2011 Syrian refugees due to Assad's, Iranian and Russian war against the Syrian people: Migrant motives in the European refugee and migrant crisis since 2014/2015 - primarily credited to the inundation of refugees due to political and social conflicts in regions such as Syria, the greatest number of refugees fleeing to Europe originate from Syria due to Assad's, Iranian and Russian war against the Syrian people
2016: 2008-2016 List refugees and total population of concern by UN region, includes 21,288,728 people in Africa in 2016, 31,168,078 people in Asia in 2016, 8,061,269 people in Latin America in 2016, and 6,210,994 people in Europe in 2016
June 2018: 5,645,518 total registered Syrian refugees on 7 June 2018, according to UNHCR
4 July 2019: 5,625,871 registered Syrian refugees on 4 July 2019, as Assad's, Iranian and Russian murderous war against the Syrian people continues in its ninth year and as Russia and Assad regime step up murderous airstrikes against civilians in Idlib province on 22 July 2019

Ethnic and ethnographic museums by country including European countries: Ethnic and ethnographic museums by country including European countries
Ethnic groups by continent and ethnology: Ethnic groups by continent - Ethnology, the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them
Ethnic groups by continent: Ethnic groups in Africa - Ethnic groups in North America - Ethnic groups in the USA - Native Americans in the USA - Ethnic groups in Central America - Ethnic groups in South America - Ethnic groups in Asia - Ethnic groups in Europe - Ethnic groups in Oceania and Australia
History of Native Americans in North America and the USA: History of Native Americans in the USA
Iroquois 'People of the Longhouse' historical indigenous confederacy in northeast North America: The Iroquois 'People of the Longhouse', a historical indigenous confederacy in northeast North America, known during the colonial years to the French as the Iroquois League, later as the Iroquois Confederacy and to the English as the Five Nations, comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca, as after 1722 they accepted the Tuscarora people from the southeast into their confederacy, also Iroquoian-speaking, and consequently became known as the Six Nations, and as in 2010 more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, and about 80,000 in the USA
Lewis H. Morgan's (1818-1881) theory of social evolution: Lewis H. Morgan's (1818-1881) theory of social evolution - 1877 'Ancient Society' investigation by the anthropologist Lewis H. Morgan, building on the data about kinship and social organization presented 1871 - 'Ancient Society' investigation, published 1877 (full text) - 1884/1892 'Die irokesische Gens' by Friedrich Engels (im Anschluß an Lewis H. Morgans Forschungen, in 'Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigentums und des Staats'
Rural history museums in Europe: Rural history museums in Europe
European Union and science and technology, European Research Area: European Union and science and technology - European Research Area - Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks
Since 1975 European Space Agency ESA: European Space Agency ESA, an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space since 1975, with 22 member states and headquartered in Paris, having worldwide staff of about 2,000 and an annual budget of about €5.25 billion in 2016
October 2016 ExoMars mission: 20 October 2016: Hopes are fading for Schiaparelli lander, part of the ExoMars 2016 mission jointly operated by ESA with the Russian regime's space agency Roscosmos, after mission control lost contact - 28 October 2016: ESA released images of its doomed Mars lander, showing a giant crater caused by impact, and scattered components
July 2018 water 'lake' revealed on Mars: 25 July 2018: Using Marsis, a radar instrument on board the European Space Agency's Mars Express orbiter, researchers have found evidence of an existing body of liquid water on Mars
August 2018 'Aeolus': Since 22 August 2018 Atmospheric Dynamics Mission 'Aeolus' Earth observation satellite - 23 August 2018: ESA launched a rocket from French Guyana to put a satellite into orbit as part of what company Arianespace called the world’s first space mission to map the Earth’s wind on a global scale, as Aeolus will boost climate research and weather forecasting, particularly in data blindspot of the tropics
Proposed fusion, power generation that would generate electricity by using heat from nuclear fusion reactions in fusion reactors (proposed) - Proposed fusion reactors - Nuclear fusion
Since October 2007 international nuclear fusion research and engineering project ITER: Since October 2007 ITER, an international nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject, which will be the world's largest magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment, funded and run by 7 member entities including the EU, India, Japan, China, Russia, South Korea, USA, as the EU, as host party for the ITER complex, is contributing 45.46% of the cost and as 35 countries are participating in the project with an experimental tokamak nuclear fusion reactor built next to the Cadarache facility in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance in southern France
Since 20th century problems and criticism of ITER project: Since 20th century problems and criticism of ITER project
1988-2035 timeline after ITER project officially initiated: Since 1988 timeline and status of ITER project
28 July 2020 Iter project began its five-year assembly phase: 28 July 2020: Iter project, the world’s largest nuclear fusion project aiming to show clean fusion power can be generated at commercial scale, began its five-year assembly phase on Tuesday in southern France, with the first ultra-hot plasma expected to be generated in late 2025




Religions in Europe, with a major influence on countries' societies, culture, language, art, and law, as the largest religion in Europe has become 'Christianity', as three countries in Southeastern Europe have Muslim majorities, as ancient European religions included veneration for deities such as 'Zeus', as smaller religions include religions originating in the Asian part of Eurasia, Judaism, and some East Asian religions, which are found in their largest groups in Britain, France, and the former Soviet Union (now Russian federation), as little is known about the prehistoric religion of Neolithic Europe, as Bronze and Iron Age religions in Europe were predominantly polytheistic (Ancient Greek religion, Ancient Roman religion, Basque mythology, Finnish paganism, Celtic polytheism, Germanic paganism, etc.)
Fourth century change of the Roman empire and 'Christianization': The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380, as during the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent 'Christianization', a development which included the use of force, military force and militarization, a process essentially complete with the Christianization of Scandinavia in the High Middle Ages - Religion in the EU

Since ancient times the story of the 'Tower of Babel', actual confusion of tongues, and exploration of historical contexts - Origin of language and human evolution - Language acquisition

Since 7th century BCE adoption of the 'Torah' in Israel and Judah: History of education (learning specific skills) in ancient Israel and Judah, as 'education' has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation, and as formal education in this sense can be traced in Ancient Israel and Judah to some time after the 7th century BCE with adoption of the Torah, which means 'teaching', 'instruction', 'scribe' or 'law' in Hebrew - Since 950–587 BCE history of ancient Israel and Judah during Iron Age II
Since 459 BCE 'school system' developping for Israeli children above six or seven years of age: The 'be rav' or 'bet rabban' (house of the teacher), the 'be safra' or 'bet sefer' (house of the book), said to have been originated by Ezra' 459 BCE and his Great Assembly, who provided a public school in Jerusalem to secure the education of fatherless boys of the age of sixteen years and upward, as the school system did not develop until Joshua ben Gamla 64 CE caused public schools to be opened in every town and hamlet for all children above six or seven years of age
Texts and subject areas of ancient Israeli education: Texts and subject areas of ancient Israeli education included texts, the Mishna and later the Talmud and Gemora, all hand-written as emphasis was placed on developing good memory skills in addition to comprehension by practice of oral repetition, as the children (girls were not provided with formal education) would be taught from the six broad subject areas into which the Mishna is divided, including Zeraim ('Seeds'), dealing with agricultural laws and prayers, Moed ('Festival'), pertaining to the laws of the Shabbat and the Festivals, Nashim ('Women'), concerning marriage and divorce, Nezikin ('Damages'), dealing with civil and criminal law, Kodashim ('Holy things'), regarding sacrificial rites, the Temple, and the dietary laws, and Tohorot ('Purities'), pertaining to the laws of purity and impurity
Since 1st century cleansing of the Temple narrative: Since 1st century cleansing of the Temple narrative (occurring in all four canonical gospels of the so-called 'New Testament'), telling of Jesus expelling the merchants and the money changers from the Jewish Second Temple, as the scene has become a common motif in Christian art, because in this account Jesus and his disciples (the later 'apostles' in Christianity) travel to Jerusalem for Passover, where Jesus expels the merchants and consumers from the temple, accusing them of turning it into 'a den of thieves' (in the Synoptic Gospels) and 'a house of trade' (in Gospel of John) through their commercial activities - Narrative comparison of canonical gospels over the trial of Jesus in praetorium before Pontius Pilate, preceded by the Sanhedrin Trial, as according to the Gospel of Luke Pilate finds that Jesus, being from Galilee, belonged to Herod Antipas' jurisdiction, and so he decides to send Jesus to Herod, but after questioning Jesus and receiving very few replies, Herod sees Jesus as no threat and returns him to Pilate's court, where Jesus answered 'my kingdom is not of this world'

1st/2nd centuries renaming of Israel, Judah, Iudaea to Syria Palaestina by the Roman empire after its war crimes: As Israel has evidence of the earliest migration of hominids out of Africa, the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah emerged during the Iron Age, the Neo-Assyrian Empire destroyed Israel around 720 BCE, then Judah was later conquered by the Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic empires and had existed as Jewish autonomous provinces, then the successful Maccabean Revolt led to an independent Hasmonean kingdom by 110 BCE, which in 63 BCE however became a client state of the Roman Republic that subsequently installed the Herodian dynasty in 37 BCE, and in 6 CE created the Roman province of Judea, then Judea lasted as a Roman province until the failed Jewish revolts resulted in widespread destruction and mass murder, the expulsion of the Jewish population, and the renaming of the region from Iudaea to Syria Palaestina

Skills and degree of skill: Skills and degree of skill and learning - Die sogenannte ursprüngliche Akkumulation - Einfache und erweiterte Reproduktion - Human, individual reproduction

Human reproduction (individual) and pregnancy
Parenting by continent, and later also by 'country' - Maternity by continent, and later also by 'country' - Family by continent, and later also by 'country' and by 'nationality' - Childhood by continent - Society by continent

Language development, the process by which human individuals 'acquire' (sich aneignen) the capacity to understand language, as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate - Phasen des Erstspracherwerbs - 'Prosodie' aus griechisch 'prosodía' - Learning to read (including spoors and tracks since early days) and to write





Internationale Organisationen, Institutionen etc. zur Intervention, Krisenverhinderung und Krisenbewältigung (aktualisierte Version hier aufzurufen)









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